Debating South Korea's SSNs: Strategic Utility and Roles in National Security / Jeeyong Kim and Daehan Lee

South  Korea  has  considered  the  introduction  of  SSNs  for  more  than  three decades, yet the program has not materialized due to various constraints. The se- curity environment on the Korean Peninsula has recently shifted as North Korea has  begun  deploying  nuclear-capable  systems  at  sea,  including  a  nuclear-armed unmanned  underwater  vehicle,  a  tactical  nuclear  attack  submarine,  and  the  re- ported construction of a strategic nuclear submarine. Amid growing security con- cerns, the United States approved South Korea’s development of SSNs following a bilateral summit associated with the APEC meeting. This development reflects a  broader  balancing  dynamic  in  response  to  changes  in  the  international  dis- tribution of power. Nevertheless, domestic debates questioning the utility of SSNs continue to shape public opinion and may constrain policy implementation. This study classifies the major critiques of South Korea’s SSN program into three cate- gories and evaluates their insights and limitations. It then proposes three strategic roles for SSNs within South Korea’s national security  strategy.

Keywords: North Korea’s SSBN, South Korea’s SSN, SSN Utility Debates, Nuclear-powered Submarine​

Submerged Strategy: South Korea's SSN Pursuit and Lessons from India / Yoon Jung Choi

This study analyzes India’s experience in developing sea-based nuclear forces centered on SSBNs through the lenses of nuclear deterrence, maritime strategy, and strategic stability, and draws implications for South Korea’s SSN debate. It argues  that  the  strategic  value  of  sea-based  nuclear  forces  does  not  arise  from platform acquisition alone, but from the long-term integration of doctrine, techno- logical  autonomy,  command  and  control,  and  maritime  operational  concepts. India’s SSBN force has strengthened the credibility of NFU and CMD by enhanc- ing the survivability of retaliatory capability and expanding strategic autonomy in the Indian Ocean. At the same time, it exposes persistent constraints, including limited platform numbers, SLBM range limitations, anti-submarine warfare com- petition, NC3 vulnerabilities, and crisis-management burdens at sea. These find- ings suggest that South Korea’s SSN debate should not be framed as a pursuit of sea-based nuclear retaliation. Rather, it should focus on how a conventional nu- clear-powered  undersea  capability  can  be  coherently  integrated  with  maritime strategy,  alliance  coordination,  non-proliferation  norms,  and  crisis-management mechanisms.​

Keywords: SSBN, SSN, Sea-Based Nuclear Deterrence, Maritime Strategy, Korea-India Maritime Cooperation​

The Status and Role of the Secretariat Party Central Committee of the WPK in the Kim Jong-un Era: Focusing on Elites and Institutional Operation / Junhee Lee

This study analyzes the composition, status, and operational mechanisms of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Workers’ Party of Korea following Kim Jong Un’s rise to power, in order to assess whether the prevailing “Secretariat as the locus of real power” thesis remains valid in the Kim Jong Un era. It also evaluates  the contemporary status and role of  the Secretariat under his  rule.

To this end, the study examines the historical context in which party secre- tariats  emerged and  developed  within  Marxist-Leninist  party  systems, and  com- paratively analyzes the functions and transformations of the Secretariat under Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il. In particular, it provides a comprehensive analysis of developments following the 8th  Party  Congress, with  particular attention  to  the downsizing of the Secretariat, the concentration of authority, the reorganization of functional specializations, and patterns in meeting frequency and agenda-setting. The findings indicate that the Secretariat of the Workers’ Party of Korea has been significantly strengthened as a core executive and coordinating body respon- sible  for  policy  coordination,  cadre  control,  and  disciplinary  oversight.  At  the same time, Kim Jong Un has maintained firm control over the Secretariat through discretionary   appointments   and   organizational   adjustments.   As   a   result,   the Secretariat today functions in a manner that systematically supports and enhances the  efficiency of governance centered  on  Kim  Jong  Un.

Keywords: Kim Jong Un, WPK (Workers’ Party of Korea), WPK Secretariat, 8th WPK Congress, 9th WPK Congress, Cadre Policy, Party Institutions, Marxist-Leninist Party

North Korea's Military Intervention in the Russia–Ukraine War: Beyond Transactional Logic and Toward Strategic State-Building / Inseok Yoo

This study conceptualizes North Korea’s large-scale troop deployment in the course of the Russia–Ukraine War as an instance of active military intervention and  examines  its  strategic  motivations.  Existing  studies  have  explained  North Korea’s involvement in terms of economic compensation, the acquisition of mili- tary technology, and strategic transactions. However, such approaches face limi- tations  in  adequately  accounting  for  the  high-risk  decision  to  deploy  combat troops. In response, this study interprets North Korea’s military intervention not as a mere extension of transactional exchanges, but as the implementation of a broader strategy of “strategic state” construction. From this perspective, the de- ployment can be understood as an act that simultaneously seeks to expand North Korea’s role in wartime operations and to deepen strategic ties with Russia. In particular, given that North Korea has set the completion of its nuclear force as a core objective of strategic state-building, military and technological support from Russia  carries  a  certain  strategic  significance.  However,  the  analytical  focus should not be confined to the value of such support per se, but rather be directed toward how policy choices—including troop deployment—are positioned and oper- ate within the overarching strategy of strategic state construction. In this context, the  deployment  is  better  understood  not  as  a  transactional  choice  aimed  at short-term gains, but as a component of a long-term national strategy designed to expand strategic status and bargaining power. This study contributes academically by extending existing great power–centric theories of military intervention to pres- ent  an  analytical  framework  that  explains  North  Korea’s  intervention  behavior, and it offers policy implications by projecting its future patterns and suggesting appropriate response strategies.

Keywords: North Korea, Russia–Ukraine War, Military Intervention, Troop Deployment, North  Korea–Russia Alliance​

Political Economy of North Korea's Dollarization: Rise of the Donju and the 2009 Currency Reform / Jieyoung Kim

This study examines the paradox of deepening dollarization in North Korea— a state that officially champions juche (self-reliance) and economic autonomy— and seeks to answer the question: “Why and how did dollarization occur in North Korea?” Drawing on authoritarian survival theory, structural theory of action, and institutional change theory, this study argues that the emergence of Donju and the resulting  transformation  of  North  Korea's  power  structure  constitute  the  funda- mental cause of dollarization. To substantiate this claim, the study proposes and verifies a four-stage diachronic causal mechanism: (1) Donju-elite collusion gives rise  to  a  market  force;  (2)  the  regime  perceives  this  coalition  as  an  existential threat;  (3)  in  response,  it  implements  a  currency  reform  aimed  at  purging  this emerging force; (4) however, the reform undermines trust in both the currency and the regime, thereby accelerating the spread of dollarization. Through this analysis, the study proposes an alternative analytical framework that moves beyond mac- ro-structural  economic  explanations  by  foregrounding  the  political-economic  dy- namics of Donju ascendance and shifting power structures to account for North Korean dollarization.

Keywords: Dollarization, Donju, North Korea, Currency Reform, Authoritarian Survival Theory​

The Political-Military Dynamics of OPCON Transfer: Structural Limitations of the Conditions-Based Paradigm and a Pathways to Substantive Transfer through COTP Revision and  Implementation TOR Establishment / Ki-tae Park

The transfer of wartime operational control (OPCON) to the Republic of Korea Armed Forces has been under discussion since 1978, repeatedly delayed over the course  of  47  years.  In  2014,  the  two  nations  agreed  to  the  Conditions-based OPCON  Transition  Plan  (COTP),  premising  transfer  on  the  fulfillment  of  three conditions. With the Full Operational Capability (FOC) verification now approach- ing completion in 2026, a new phase appears imminent. However, this study ar- gues  that the current framework fails  to guarantee a  substantive  transfer. Four core theses are advanced. First, while the COTP conditions are eval- uated through a joint ROK-U.S. assessment mechanism, the U.S. military holds structural dominance in setting and interpreting evaluation criteria, effectively ren- dering  the  COTP  a  managed  deferral  mechanism.  Second,  historical  evidence demonstrates  that  transfer  decisions  have  consistently  been  driven  by  political judgment rather than condition fulfillment. Third, the current design of the Future Combined  Forces  Command  risks  what  this  study  terms  “Command  Authority Renaming”—a state in which nominal command authority is transferred to ROK forces while substantive control over strategic assets, intelligence access, and com- mand  post  operations  remains  with  U.S.  forces.  Fourth,  realizing  a  substantive transfer in 2028 requires that COTP revisions and the establishment of five Terms of Reference (TOR)—currently nonexistent—enter into force simultaneously with the transfer itself, not as preconditions that could justify further delay. This study presents concrete proposals for COTP revision and TOR establishment across five domains: command structure, strategic asset employment, intelligence sharing, combined  command  post  sovereignty,  and decision-making  mechanisms for Taiwan contingencies. The year 2028 represents the only realistic window co- inciding  with  the  Trump  administration's  second  term  (January  2025–January 2029), and proactive agenda-setting by the ROK government is urgently required.​

Keywords: OPCON Transfer, Conditions-based OPCON Transition Plan (COTP), Command Authority Renaming, Future Combined Forces Command, TOR Establishment, Alliance Security Dilemma 

The Evolution of NATO's 'Continuum of Competition' and Its Implications for the Transfer of Wartime Operational Control in Korea: Focusing on the Standardization Document AJP-01 / Sung Kyoo Ahn

NATO’s military posture toward Russia has recently been reinforced through doctrinal revision. In particular, attention has focused on the concept of the con- tinuum of competition (CoC) reflected in the revised edition of AJP-01, NATO’s capstone doctrine. This concept understands military activities for deterrence not through  a  peacetime-wartime  dichotomy,  but  within  a  continuous  competitive environment. In the past, below-threshold military activities and grey-zone or hy- brid activities were often not clearly incorporated into the category of traditional military operations, making effective responses difficult and providing advantages to the aggressor. However, following the adoption of the CoC concept, such activ- ities are increasingly recognized as part of the competitive environment. NATO has  consequently  responded  to  them  through  a  campaign-oriented  approach  that does not strictly distinguish between peacetime and wartime, while strengthening structures  for  the  persistent  functional  integration  of  allied  military  capabilities from peacetime onward. This suggests that South Korea, which has already en- tered  a  CoC  environment,  may  also  need  to  reconsider  its  “conditions-based OPCON  transition”  framework  and  move  toward  a  “function-based  transition” approach.​

Keywords: Continuum of Competition, Campaign, Sub-threshold Military Activities, AJP-01,  OPCON  Transfer  

Managed Fluctuation in DPRK-China Relations from the Cold War to the New Cold War: Asymmetric Alliance Politics, Asymmetric Interdependence, and Critical Junctures / Sung-Chul Kang

This  article  develops  an  analytical  framework  combining  the  alliance  di- lemma  and  asymmetric  interdependence  to  explain  long-term  change  in  DPRK- China relations from the Cold War to the new Cold War. It treats China’s entrap- ment costs and loss/abandonment costs as independent variables, the possession and constrained use of leverage as a conditioning factor, and the observable mix of  sanctions  implementation,  border  and  logistics  control,  high-level  exchanges, and diplomatic buffering as the dependent variable of policy distance. The article compares six critical turning points and conducts focused process tracing on two periods: 2006-2017, when the North Korean nuclear crisis and multilateral sanc- tions intensified, and 2018 onward, when summit diplomacy unfolded amid sharp- ening U.S.-China strategic competition. It argues that China responds to rising en- trapment  costs  by  strengthening  limited  pressure  on  North  Korea,  but  does  not move toward full coercion because loss/abandonment costs - regime collapse, bor- der instability, and erosion of a strategic buffer - remain high, while the full use of leverage carries substantial spillover costs. North Korea, for its part, seeks to reshape China’s cost calculations through crisis escalation, alternative patron sig- nals, diplomatic shifts, and high-level political channels. As a result, DPRK-China relations are better understood as managed fluctuation, in which pressure and sup- port  are  repeatedly  recombined under changing structural conditions.

Keywords: DPRK-China Relations, Asymmetric Alliance Politics, Asymmetric Interdependence, Managed Fluctuation, New Cold War​